Absent Fathers free essay sample

In The Other Wes Moore, by Wes Moore, both boys named Wes Moore without fathers living in their immensely poor neighborhood display the effects of living in a destitute area without a proper male mentor. Wes Moore, the author, was left without a father at age 4, which may have caused him to feel a lack of direction in the beginning of his life; in addition, living in a poor neighborhood may have caused him to be unable to see how success can come through education. His mother did indeed give him love, tried to get to him do well in school, and sent him to a private school, but Wes didn’t feel like trying to do well in school for at least two likely reasons. Wes always grew up in a place where most families had a low income. At Chinquapin Middle School in Baltimore: â€Å"Close to 70 percent of the kids were on the school lunch program†. We will write a custom essay sample on Absent Fathers or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Many of the parents of the community couldn’t afford to feed their children without financial aid from the government. Although he spent a lot of time living outside Baltimore, in the Bronx, he still lived in a place where crime and drugs were rampant. In places such as these, academic success would seem to be futile because of the lack of impression from people in their world. There wouldn’t be very many scholars, who had achieved a higher education and led a successful career that brought them happiness and a handsome salary. Living in Baltimore and the Bronx, Wes had nowhere to actually see with his own eyes how education could take him to great places. The death of the author’s father, and lack of a male mentor, definitely caused a stir of anger, confusion, fear, and possibly ended up in a depression that even affected how well he did in school. At such an early age, being hit with the sudden reality that your father is no more, emotions can become bottled up. According to a study in The Journal of Adolescence, the lower the GPA of students, the more commonly they were depressed. Wes had been left with a mental stigma for a part of his life, because of the death of his father, and his terrible performance in school is undeniable. In the third grade, he was reading at a second grade level. When attending Riverdale, he was hardly attending school and doing so terribly in academics that the principal called his mother. His mother then sent him to military school and because of that he was able to have male role models. Having male role models, arguably, was the main factor in how he turned his life around. He no longer felt the repressed emotions from when he was a child, and he eventually started to enjoy academics. Had he a father for all his life, he might have never had the same problems with academics and such. The other Wes Moore’s life was greatly influenced by his life’s circumstances. He also was raised in a destitute area where crime and drugs had taken over neighborhoods, and never had a real father figure. Young boys need a role model, and because he never had a male hero in his life, he looked to his brother as a role model. Even though his brother did not want him to get involved in the same crimes he was involved in: â€Å"To Wes, Tony was a ‘certified gangsta’† (Moore 27). Tony had an immense reputation in the drug game. He worked his way to the top, and naturally, such respect and reputation would appeal to other people. Wes eventually followed in Tony’s footsteps. He was also gravitated toward dealing drugs, because the only neighborhood he knew was filled with demand for drugs. His mother spread thin financially which was in part because they didn’t have any income coming from their father, and drugs seemed an easy way to make money in his world. He became heavily involved with selling drugs, and ultimately, he joined Tony in committing the crime that got them both into prison for the rest of their lives. With no father, Tony was the only one to look up to. Adolescents without fathers are twice as likely to drop out of high school, just as Wes did. Wes seemed doomed to never make it out of his poor, crime infested neighborhood, because of the environment and the absence of his father.

Biography of Rudolf Diesel, Inventor of the Diesel Engine

Biography of Rudolf Diesel, Inventor of the Diesel Engine The engine that bears his name set off a new chapter in the Industrial Revolution, but German engineer Rudolf Diesel (1858–1913), who grew up in France, initially thought his invention would help small businesses and artisans, not industrialists.  In truth, diesel engines are commonplace in vehicles of all types, especially those that have to pull heavy loads (trucks or trains) or do a lot of work, such as on a farm or in a power plant. For this one improvement to an engine, his impact on the world is clear today. But his death more than a century ago remains a mystery. Fast Facts: Rudolf Diesel Occupation: EngineerKnown For:  Inventor of the Diesel engineBorn:  March 18, 1858, in Paris, FranceParents:  Theodor Diesel and Elise StrobelDied:  September 29 or 30, 1913, in the English ChannelEducation:  Technische Hochschule (Technical High School), Munich, Germany; Industrial School of Augsburg, Royal Bavarian Polytechnic of Munich (Polytechnic Institute)Published Works:  Theorie und Konstruktion eines rationellen Wremotors  (Theory and Construction of a Rational Heat Motor), 1893Spouse:  Martha Flasche (m. 1883)Children:  Rudolf Jr. (b. 1883), Heddy (b. 1885), and Eugen (b. 1889)Notable Quote:  I am firmly convinced that the automobile engine will come, and then I consider my life’s work complete. Early Life Rudolf Diesel was born in Paris, France, in 1858. His parents were Bavarian immigrants. At the outbreak of the Franco-German War, the family was deported to England in 1870. From there, Diesel went to Germany to study at the Munich Polytechnic Institute, where he excelled in engineering. After graduation he was employed as a refrigerator engineer in Paris, at Linde Ice Machine Company, beginning in 1880.  He had studied thermodynamics under Carl von Linde, head of the company, in Munich. His true love lay in engine design, however, and over the next few years he began exploring a number of ideas. One concerned finding a way to help small businesses compete with big industries, which had the money to harness the power of steam engines. Another was how to use the laws of thermodynamics to create a more efficient engine. In his mind, building a better engine would help the little guy, the independent artisans, and entrepreneurs. In 1890 he took a job heading the engineering department of the same refrigeration firm in its Berlin location, and during his off time (to keep his patents) would experiment with his engine designs. He was aided in the development of his designs by Maschinenfabrik Augsburg, which is now MAN Diesel, and Friedrich Krupp AG, which is now ThyssenKrupp. The Diesel Engine Print Collector/Getty Images Rudolf Diesel designed many heat engines, including a solar-powered air engine. In 1892 he applied for a patent and received a development patent for his diesel engine. In 1893 he published a paper describing an engine with combustion within a cylinder, the internal combustion engine. In Augsburg, Germany, on August 10, 1893, Rudolf Diesels prime model, a single 10-foot iron cylinder with a flywheel at its base, ran on its own power for the first time. He received a patent there for the engine that same year and a patent for an improvement. Diesel spent two more years making improvements and in 1896 demonstrated another model with the theoretical efficiency of 75 percent, in contrast to the 10 percent efficiency of the steam engine or other early internal combustion engines. Work continued on developing a production model. In 1898 Rudolf Diesel was granted U.S. patent #608,845 for an internal combustion engine.   His Legacy Rudolf Diesels inventions have three points in common: They relate to heat transference by natural physical processes or laws, they involve markedly creative mechanical design, and they were initially motivated by the inventors concept of sociological needs- by finding a way to enable independent craftsmen and artisans to compete with large industry. That last goal didn’t exactly pan out as Diesel expected. His invention could be used by small businesses, but the industrialists embraced it eagerly as well. His engine took off immediately, with applications far and wide that spurred the Industrial Revolutions rapid development. Following his death, diesel engines became common in automobiles, trucks (starting in the 1920s), ships (after World War II), trains (starting in the 1930s), and more- and they still are. The diesel engines of today are refined and improved versions of Rudolf Diesels original concept. His engines have been used to power pipelines, electric and water plants, automobiles and trucks, and marine craft, and soon after were used in mines, oil fields, factories, and transoceanic shipping. More efficient, more powerful engines allowed boats to be bigger and more goods to be sold overseas. Diesel became a millionaire by the end of the 19th century, but bad investments left him in a lot of debt at the end of his life. His Death In 1913, Rudolf Diesel disappeared en route to London while on an ocean steamer coming back from Belgium to attend the groundbreaking of a new diesel-engine plant- and to meet with the British navy about installing his engine on their submarines, the History Channel says.  He is assumed to have drowned in the English Channel. Its suspected by some that he committed suicide over heavy debts, due to bad investments and poor health, information that didnt come out until after his death. However, theories immediately began that he was helped overboard. A newspaper at the time speculated, Inventor Thrown Into the Sea to Stop Sale of Patents to British Government, the BBC noted. World War I was at hand, and Diesels engines made it into Allied submarines and ships- though the latter were primarily for World War II. Diesel was a proponent of vegetable oil as fuel, putting him at odds with the ever-growing petroleum industry and leading, the BBC says, to the theory that Diesel was Murdered by Agents From Big Oil Trusts. Or it could have been coal magnates, yet others speculated, because steam engines ran on tons and tons of it. Theories kept his name in the papers for years and even included an assassination attempt by German spies to prevent his sharing details about the development of the U-boat. Sources Daimler. Rudolf Diesel and His Invention. Daimler.com.Harford, Tim. How Rudolf Diesels Engine Changed the World. BBC News, 19 December 2016.History.com Editors. Inventor Rudolf Diesel Vanishes. History.com.Lemelson-MIT. Rudolf Diesel. Lemelson-MIT Program, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.Lewis, Danny. When the Inventor of the Diesel Engine Disappeared. Smithsonian Magazine. 29 September 2016.

Law of Health Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Law of Health - Essay Example It is the duty of health care providers to give information to their patients when obtaining consent and also warn them of any possible risks that are likely to be encountered during the treatment or medical procedure. But on the other hand, the quantity of information to disclose, and the truthfulness of that information is also a factor to consider as much as a health care provider is required to give out information to patients. The statement under scrutiny in this paper can be dissected in a myriad of ways. It is imperative to point out that in relation to the law in England and Wales; it is the duty of health care providers to care for their patients. This was clearly stated by the House of Lords by Lord Diplock in the Sidaway v Bethlem Royal Hospital case of 1985. According to Lord Diplock, â€Å"A single comprehensive duty covering all the ways in which you are called on to exercise skill and judgment in the improvement of the physical and mental condition of the patient. â€Å"(Sidaway v Bethlem Royal Hospital 1985)’. The law in England and Wales also clearly stipulates that it is the duty of the health care provider, while caring for a patient, to clearly advice a patient and disclose all pertinent information that will permit the patient to come up with good decisions based on the nature of care being given (Hills v Potter 1983). However, the law is not quite clear on the distinction that sh ould exist between therapeutic and non-therapeutic contexts. Most of the famous cases that are related to the topic in question reveal just how difficult it is for one to know just how much information to reveal to a patient. This difficulty arises from the fact that it is not very clear whether very inquisitive and curious patients should be told more than needs to be told. Another issue that causes this difficulty lies in the fact that the law is not comprehensible on whether the health care provider has the discretion to distort or withhold information.  

Moblie Phone Insurance Research Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Moblie Phone Insurance Research - Essay Example To this effect, a host of insurance companies created mobile phone insurance to provide cover for phones that are lost, damaged or stolen. Several companies have presented different options that make it easy to provide insurance cover for the mobile phones, and people have to choose dependent on the cover that suits them best, as well as the benefits that emanate from such dealings (Cai, Li, Xia, & Giannelli 2010: 49). Several ways of looking at the way of dealing with such an issue is actually dependent on the person making the payments. Some people will be content by knowing that they have an extra source of security for their expensive gadgets. The problem is that this peace of mind could come at an extra cost that they ought to have reduced at the very start by choosing the best MPI in the market. Some, however, will see the money paid to be quite high and unrealistic. They will wish to have their phones remain as they are without any cover (Brignall 2012). Nonetheless, it is important to understand that when companies are designing their MPIs, they are aware that customers will require different covers and will come up with different gadgets that vary in price. The company must understand this and place it into consideration as a way of appealing and satisfying their employees. The goal is to assure them that they will get the best through their indulgence and utility of covers from their companies (Cai, et al. 2010: 78-79). The delivery of services must meet the clients’ needs; hence, a need to work on carrying out their feasibility studies to understand what is missing. For instance, the Financial Conduct Authority (FCA) carried out a survey seeking to understand the impact MPIs have on clients (King & Carey 2013: 212). There were existing gaps brought about by ineffective product governance in companies, the products were not tailored to meet the needs of the consumers, the terms and conditions were unfair or

Database Security Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Database Security - Essay Example These security controls may be technical, administrative, logical or physical. The vulnerability to the database security include unauthorized access by hackers or outside attacks or misuse by authorized personnel which are database users, administrators or system managers. A malware infection may cause unauthorized access to the database and may compromise its integrity and confidentiality via leakage of details deletion or permanent damage. This may also include denial of access to authorized users or a denial of service attack. Overloads or inefficient performance constraint may compromise database integrity and the data might be susceptible to damage physically (earthquakes, fire, flood) and should be provided with adequate physical protection or have proper backup. Design flaws and invalid data entry can also compromise the integrity and reliability of the database servers. Database Reliability Reliability of a database means that the database provides services for a significant ly long period of time without any fail. It is because database may include data from different sources and a reliable access should be prudent for the database users. Key business data and process information is usually stored in databases and it is very important of DBMS users to have the data protected so that the data accessed is reliable. For this several security measures can be made in order to prevent databases from losing important data through damage or loss (Basta & Zgola. 2011). Database Integrity Database integrity refers to the consistency and the accuracy of data within the database and data warehouse systems. Data integrity is often times dubbed as data quality and data with integrity and a whole structure. There are various types of data integrity that is associated with databases. Physical integrity of a database refers to the immunity of a database system to physical damages such as power failures, earthquakes, floods etc. and that the database can easily be recon structed in case of such catastrophe. Logical integrity of a database is equally vital as its physical counterpart and it entails that a database structure must be preserved and it is evident by the logical integrity of the structure when changes to one field do not put a cascading effect on other fields of the database. For example, the data in each element must be accurate, the data is auditable, there is access control for unauthorized personnel, users are correctly identified and the database must be available for the authorized personnel. Auditability of a databases addresses with the monitoring of who or what accesses the data base or has modified the database itself. Other data base integrity constraints include referential integrity and domain integrity. To ensure data integrity, data values are first standardized using specific data models or types. For this it is important that the data is complete in its business relations, functions, rules and dates and it is protected. Data integrity can also be implemented through other ways than database security where different error checking and validations must be checked in order to provide accuracy of data. For example, a numerical value in the in a date of hiring cannot be one that is ahead of the system date. In its realization, data

Classical Management Theorists And Their Impact Today Commerce Essay

Classical Management Theorists And Their Impact Today Commerce Essay Introduction: Organizations are shared units in the course of explicit rationale. The fundamental rudiments of associations have remained similar over a large span of time. More than a few restraints make available the comprehension and the means to be aware of organizations. Nevertheless, it is suitable to come across such a business which is essentially in multi-disciplinary point of view. (Phan, Phillip H (2006) Three standpoints have come out, over the years in consecutive phases, each looking forward to formulate accessible pane on the others. They are the classical approach, three streams stand out: system of government, administrative theory as well as principles of scientific management. It has got to be noted that with the passage of time; the viewpoints have been changed or modified, on the other hand not replaced as such. Each major association brought new awareness, consciousness, apparatus and modus operandi to comprehend the organizations better. Consequently, in the present day we are more affluent than ever before in terms of our information concerning approach to know organizations. (Von Bertalanffy, L (2007) In spite of the whole thing, more consciousness intended computation by means of additional comprehensive variables to recognize the complexities of human organizations. There is, as nevertheless, no general, mutual prevalent hypothesis as such. Organizations being speckled as well as comprehensive in more senses than one, it is intricate, if not of no consequence to be too across-the-board or too precise on the subject of them. Every business is rooted in traditional practical main beliefs. (Phan, Phillip H (2006) nevertheless modern organization theories attempted to adapt them in the beam of experience, changes in expertise and acquaintance on the topic of human activities. (Gordon Marshall (2006) The central arrangement gave approach to not many sort of transference and therefore malformed, to some extent as a minimum, high organizations keen on flat ones, reflecting a shift in prominence from control to consensus based self-discipline. (Locke, E.A (1968) The proportional state o f affairs of instability and uncertainty malformed the traditional mechanistic shape of management systems into untreated ones. (Rudy, Alan P (2005) The constant inappropriateness has been one of a most important modification a few would articulate an authentic example in the theoretical appearance all the way through which the field is disconnects as well as prearranged as a rational power. Balanced change and discontinuity have been reflected by the materialization of original directorial structures and observe which give the impression to indicate a pointed fracture with additional conformist preparation based on the most important attitude of balanced system of government. (Von Bertalanffy, L (2007) Without a doubt, the level as well as strength of rational fermentation and institutional modernization has encouraged a number of observers to suggest that managerial learning can no longer be regarded as an instruction or, not as much of determined, as a sub- regulation bounded by the all-purpose field of social science. (Von Bertalanffy, L (2007) At the other end of the hypothetical range, there are a few people fighting a rearguard action against the proliferation of replacement approaches as well as the sarcastic power which it has exerted on recognized orthodoxies along with the array that they once provided. (Wetzel, David K (2006) conventional association theories contract all the way through the prescribed association as well as perception to expand management capability. (Rudy, Alan P (2005) Background: The period of the 90s might be considered within the proceedings concerning American commerce account the Quality upheaval period. All over organizations are facing with augmented contest, grinding down share in the market, as well as status for undependable products are at present put into practice an armory of techniques imposing quality with the hope to come out conquering in within the global conflict for consumers. (Gulick, L., Urwick, L. (eds) (2007) Quality management is more and more accepted and admired as a planned tool floating to look up the gung-ho competition of American business. (Rudy, Alan P (2005) recent quality management perspectives time and again are opposing to predictable management perform espoused by the fields chronological initiators. These oppositions put forward that an endeavor alarmed throughout value have got to in due course reject executive principles established effectually in due course. (Gordon Marshall (2006) For example the TQM mod el, as uttered by excellence expert W. Edwards Deming, thoroughly discards the conservative use of quantitative objectives seeing that either a basis of encouragement or as a system of routine evaluation. Beneath Demings perceptive, its signifies no fabrication part, no sales objectives, as well as no organizational objective s. (Von Bertalanffy, L (2007) Deming contributions, nevertheless, accomplishment of the attitude is being opposed as an association have recognized and depends upon setting up objectives as the bases for portentous jobs, assess performance, as well as being able to identify an individuals incentive support. (Albrecht, K (2004) In an effort to determine disagreement flanked by these it appear that contrasting approaches, one can discover points of association as well as inconsistency in the viewpoint aligned with conventional supervision theorists, in addition to tips of squaring off where his suggestion has previous state of affairs in conventional administration reflection. (Barkdull, C.W. (2005) Edwin Locke during 1968 convincingly uttered the code of belief of objective surroundings hypothesis an inspirational arrangement resulting from Taylors opinion who has proven himself to be the guru of scientific management. Moreover he surpassed the observance of task executive an extremely structured arrangement of conveying objectives as well as gratifying personnel for accomplishing those goals. (Albrecht, K (2004) Regardless of the fact that Deming harmonizes through Taylors point of view, he recommended that task management is to some extent liable for the superiority troubles within the country. More than a few chronological methodical organization theorists furthermore privileged reimbursement for personnel who attained quantitative objective s. For instance, Henry Gantt modified Taylors compensation system to support workers more than a particular model. (Gortner, H.F., Mahler, J., Nicholson, J.B (2007) Emerson established incentive arrangement also known as Reward Strategy for strengthening persons composition. (Weber, M. (2007) Even though Demings imprecision of goal setting, in collaboration chronological records as well as present-day study sustain results that objectives perk up effectiveness. (Barkdull, C.W. (2005) In the present day, setting-up objectives is well thought-out to be the majority competent inspirational example leading to put up a concrete organization values. The extreme epitome of conventional administration by numbers ought to be eradicating from contemporary practices. (Anderson, C.R (2007) Study on goal setting in addition chains this disputation. At the same time as numerical objectives are placed, concentration, attempt, and force are aimed at quantity make up, eventually the consequence of this instance is that superiority suffers. (Bakke, W.E (2005) Studies specify that when ambitions are predetermined for solitary act aspect, additional dimensions will be sacrificed, as well as a transaction will take place. (Mahler, J., Nicholson (2007) Deming nor other researchers of goal setting were the first ones in recognizing this matter. A while back researchers have documented the quality and quantity presentation skill by probing the affiliation flanked by pace and correctness. Every individual has the aptitude to do business with the velocity for correctness. (Anderson, C.R (2007) A person typing might makeup a quick irregular draft in fewer amount of instants than it would take her to conclude a ready draft on the other hand it would include more mistakes. A biased orator might make an impression his spectators through the speed of his respond or he possibly will take his own time and systematize a rational disagreement. More or less each chore, a person can execute at changeable stages of accurateness based upon the pace of time. As a result, Demings apprehension concerning employees pursuing just quantity objectives comes out to be defensible. Conversely, despite the fact that Deming spotlights only on the disadvantageous pressure of extent principles, goal setting theorists be acquainted with that if in cooperation quantity as well as quality routine are of curiosity, objectives have got to be placed for both proportions. Emerging observed confirmation supports the verdict that in cooperation statistical and excellence in quality can be augmented by conveying double objectives. At the same time there happen to be a point of understanding flanked by goal setting hypothesis as well as Demingism. (Bakke, W.E (2005) Taylors approach: Moreover Taylors approach linked to scientific management is in relation to the perception of setting up of effort to attain effectiveness, consistency, interest and generalization. Scientific management collection was first and foremost alarmed with troubles with the functioning stage and did not put emphasis on decision-making organization and procedure. (Bakke, W.E (2005) Recognizing that the approach to augmented productivity was throughout common trust flanked by association along with staff, Taylor recommended that, to boost this point of belief, Firstly, the compensation of competence development have got to workers, Substantial pressure as well as nervousness ought to get rid of as much as probable, Ability of personnel must subsist and urbanized all the way through teaching, and The conventional boss concept have got to be eradicated (Weber, M. (2007) Webers approach: Weber was social scientist from Germany who observed as the guru of management sciences where the fundamental substance of traditional association hypothesis involving to configuration and administrative expansion and growth of the association. (Weber, M. (2007) Taking this into consideration the association as a part of wide social order, he based the discernment of the prearranged association on the following viewpoint: Arrangement: where the vacancies ought to be approved in a chain of command where there is a distinctive prearranged amount of accountability and power. Specialty: make a distinction on a practical base, as well as then estranged seeing the spot of skill, each having a detached pecking order. Obviousness and constancy: here one needs to operate in relation to a classification of events incorporating official policy and convention. Level-headedness employment: this entails selection of employees ought to be on a neutral basis. (Weber, M. (2007) Social equality: the right authorities must be identified and given designations and not picking people at random. (Rudy, Alan P (2005) Webers hypothesis is unwell on description of dysfunctions such as inflexibility, impersonality, dislocation of aim , and restraint of classification, persistence of oneself as well as empire building, cost of controls, along with nervousness to get better position. Practical management signifies basically the work out of power on the foundation of association. Authority for a sociologist is first and foremost exemplified surrounded by organizations by the procedure of power. (Weber, M. (2007) Weber categorizes organizations according to the temperament of that power: Magnetic capability is the consecrated or outstanding peculiarity of the individual; Traditional influence is the genuine reality a reverence for institution; Impartial legal influence is where a code or set of convention are emphasized The closing is the most important figure of influence presently replacing the basic use of exposed authority with chronological performance. Consistent with Weber balanced lawful power is attained all the way through the majority conversant form of association: system of government. (Weber, M. (2007) He disputes that managers ought to not rule all the way through random individual desire however by an official system of policy. He scheduled the viewpoint which underlies balanced legal power: A formally allowed regulations can be documented which can uphold compliance from members of the association; The regulation is a classification of hypothetical system which are applied to exacting cases; as well as administration looks subsequent to the welfare of the organization surrounded by the restrictions of that law; The individual exercising power in addition comply with this distant order; Simply all the way through being a constituent does the associate obey the law; Agreement is due not to the individual who upholds the power nevertheless to the incompatible order which has arranged him this smudge. (Bakke, W.E (2005) Weber is more often than not than not described as having supposed that system of government is the knowledgeable form of involvement. In actual fact, Weber alleged government to be mainly officially balanced structure of association. Bearing in mind, Weber imagined of administrative system as being more competent than unconventional forms, however it tends to make the office the center of association, also Weber did not contribute to the contemporary commencement of a practical association as being slow, stiff and lacking ability. His most significant dread was to set up ways of behaving which evades the deceit, unfairness and privileged behavior characterizing the mass 19th century associations. (Wetzel, David K (2006) Weber moreover built on this idea, where he outlined the distinctiveness of system of government in its most original shape. He believed that realistic authority would guide to a number of social outlay: An inclination to bring to a level the communal classes by consenting to an extensive variety of workers with technical resources to be in use by any association; (Bakke, W.E (2005) For the cause that of the time necessary to attain the necessary technological preparation; plutocracy should be formed A superior level of social equal opportunity owing to the ascendancy of the force of impersonality or lack of involvement. (Gulick, L., Urwick, L. (eds) (2007) Administrative approach: Fayol was the original guru of administrative theory where he viewed the managerial issues from the higher level. The basics of administrative theory transmit to success of everyday jobs, and include principles of management, the idea of line and staff, committees and tasks of management. Field Specialization: this boosts competence within technological and managerial work. Influence and accountability: it is significant for an organization to associate and attain the objectives and execute the vision and mission Controlling members of the association should respect the goals of the business. They have to furthermore accomplish with the official procedure of the association. Synchronization of power: meaning that taking direction from as well as being accountable to simply single superior. (Gulick, L., Urwick, L. (eds) (2007) Subordination of person interest to universal curiosity: the inquisitiveness of the association should not turn out to be agreeable to persons interests or the significance of a group of workers. (Hicks, G.H., Gullet, C.R (2007) Compensation of staff: is based on varied elements such as the amount of time one spends, tasks assigned, comparative rates, as well as additional benefit, profit-sharing or non-financial rewards. (Hicks, G.H., Gullet, C.R (2007) Centralized organizational administration must make use of a significant amalgamation of correspondingly centralized and de-centralized power and supervisory. (Hicks, G.H., Gullet, C.R (2007) Balanced sequence: If two associates who are on the comparable level of chain of command have got to work jointly to achieve an assignment, they have not to pursue the chain of command level, on the other hand can interconnect with one another on a mob lath if satisfactory to the superior representatives. Order: The association has a position for each and every person with a rationale who has to be so occupied. (Hicks, G.H., Gullet, C.R (2007) Impartiality justice, righteousness and fairness ought to thrive in the association. Constancy of term of workers: Job safety proceeds to personal arrangement and goals, where a person who is working in the organization needs a little time to get used to and adjust with the work and show results. Project initiation: This should be expectant and stirred.(Tosi, Carroll (2007) The awareness of workers: The perception of line as well as staff is pertinent in businesses which are large and necessitate interest of ability to reach organizational objectives. Line workers are the ones working unwaveringly to gain organizational objectives, whereas the staff comprises of those essentially function is to sustain and assist line personnel. (Tosi, H.L., Rizzo, J.R., Carroll, S (2007) Board: Board is a fraction of the association, where associates from the similar or dissimilar hierarchical levels from different departments can outline board member around a general objective . Moreover they can be assigned divergent jobs, for example executive, supervisory or suggestion . These committee members can be in various forms, for instance directors, task collections or unplanned committees. Such groups are furthermore separated in proportion to their role within the organization. Taking an example of an agricultural association these groups are made after a thorough study where they evaluate the candidates and allocate according to the land for implementation. (Tosi, H.L., Rizzo, J.R., Carroll, S (2007) Fayols management function: He alleged organization as a set of setting up, systematize, as well as schooling, commanding and coordinating functions. Management functions are also measured keeping in mind planning, organizing, hiring, assigning, coordinating, reporting as well as budgeting. (Tosi, H.L., Rizzo, J.R., Carroll, S (2007) Effects of Classical Management Theorists at present: as we are familiar with it today, management exists in all forms of association beginning from classified to communal and also non-profit. All the way through the years the dimension and intricacy of all types of organizations have developed, and consequently a distinct and specialized approach to the method of management has grown to be inexorableness. For example every management is a procedure or kind of task involving direction or course of people aligned with organization and the objectives. (Hicks, G.H., Gullet, C.R (2007) These theories in which this direction and guidance are achieved are several, on the other hand the groundwork stones to contemporary day hypothesis as well as management all together were laid in the times flanked by century turn as well as the great depression during the 1900 to the 1920s. Seeing that this period administrative perception has been identified as the old school of thought. The creators of this theory remained attentive on competence, together with the sector of managerial, routine along with technological supervision. Managerial organization draws attention to the flow of information within an association. Practical management relies on a rational set of structuring guiding principle; system and actions, pecking order, as well as apparent divisions of employment. On the other hand scientific management pays attention to one of the best possible way to do a job. (Tosi, Carroll, S (2007) The executive values of the traditional theorists were practical to supervisors as diminutive; owner-manager dealing developed into big companies and corporations by means of the development of the developed world. Today is a very diverse one to that of the previous era during the century of two major wars, a nuclear confrontation as well as rapid improvement in expertise. This statement is not convincing for a lot of corporations in the contemporary world. Also, it was recommended that every division of the association have a manifestly definite specialist and that the management should be neutral and impersonal, leading to all employees being treated evenly. The management functions were divided into five aspects that were the basis of management thoughts converted to actions, where Taylor pointed out that when at the factory management issues were raised, they were in need of innovative ways to manage those situations and challenges raised by the Industrial revolution authorities. Strength employees: Every organization needs to bear in mind that in order to execute timely and effectively they must have a below average turnover rate as well as long lasting dedication are essential for an experienced organization. Traditional philosophies of management developed throughout the beginning stage of the concluding century. (Hellriegel, D., Slocum J.W., Jr (2007) Dependence on familiarity: The old school of management, urbanized their perceptions and experiences as todays managers and executives with a typical organizational platform, where Taylor and Fayol contributed primarily from their knowledge through large developed organizations having steady surroundings. It might be foolish to generalize from those circumstances in particular to juvenile, high-technology firms of in the present day that are challenged on a day to day basis with hurdles. (Hellriegel, D., Slocum J.W., Jr (2007) Malfunction to mull over the relaxed association: stressing upon formal associations within the association, traditional approaches be apt to shell out no attention to casual dealings as distinguished through communal swapping among personnel, the materialization of team leaders distant from those particular by the official association, and so on. When such effects are not well thought-out, it is probable that a lot of significant aspects having an effect on contentment and act, such as allowing workers to participate in administrative and task development, will on no account be discovered or try. (Probst, Tahira M (2005) Unintentional cost: traditional theories aspire to achieving high effectiveness, at making conduct conventional, as well as achieving equality among workers and flanked by managers and workers; however they fail to be acquainted with that more than a few not deliberate charges can come about handy. For example, a serious importance on policy and rules might source employees to do as you are told rules blindly with no identification of their original purpose. Time and again, in view of the feature that regulations set up a least level of performance projected of workers, a bare minimum stage is all they bring about. Conceivably a lot more might be achieved if the policy were not so clear. (Woodward, J (2007) Individual mechanism: traditional hypothesis abscond the initiative that the association is an appliance whereas all the workers are just parts to be en suite into the instrument to make it run competently. As a result, a lot of the doctrines are alarmed initially through the making the organization efficient, through the hypothesis that personnel will be conventional to the work surroundings if the monetary enticements are satisfying. (Probst, Tahira M (2005) Seeing as more than a few of these condemnations of the typical school are inconsiderate, more than a few measures are to be made in resistance of authors all the way through this age. First, the labor force was not extremely sophisticated or skilled to execute a lot of jobs that subsist at the time. Also it was not a regular thing for employees to contemplate the word profession and individual growth. To a certain extent, the chance to grasp a safe job along with a stage of wages to create easy to get to for their family unit was all they need from the work situation. Succeeding, much of the text was written at the time where intellect was pacing all the through transformation and changed, in particular towards the area of industrialization. To end with, very little had been done beforehand in terms of creating a reasonable and practical body of management hypothesis, where more than a few traditional theorists wrote starting from nothing, being thankful primarily to be dependent on their individual understanding and clarification. As a result their focal point is rationally contracted. (Taylor, F.W (2007) Conclusion: In my view, classical theorists have viewed an organization as a congested system. A closed arrangement is one that has no surroundings and for this reasons no communication with outside world. However, this close system assumption regarding the organization is unrealistic. Accordingly the model fails to reflect on many of the environmental influences upon the organization as well as many significant internal aspects. Simplifying assumptions have been made in order to reduce hesitation, a process which often leads to an unfinished view of actual organizational situations. (Taylor, F.W (2007) Conventional theory takes an unbending and motionless view of the organization, even though it is a self-motivated occurrence which suggests that organizational patterns dare determined through constant adjustments. The adjustments are necessary keeping in view the requirements of organizational environment and its different internal parts. Therefore, the finest organizational prototype is one which meets its external and internal requirements, and these requirements are vigorous, ever-changing. A major denigration of the classical theory concerns with its impractical supposition regarding human behavior. Classical theorists lack sensitivity to the behavioral dimensions of an organization and make over-simplified and mechanistic assumptions for the smooth running of organizations, ignoring the extreme complexity of human behavior. They take human beings in the organization as an inert instrument performing the tasks assigned to them. Further, there is a tendency to view personnel as given rather than as a changeable in the organization. As a result, they have ignored the socio-psychological as well as motivational aspects of human behavior. For that reason the treatment of human beings in the organization on the pattern of classical assumptions may lead to aggravation, disagreement, and collapse. (Woodward, J (2007) The wide-ranging traditional notions as well as most important viewpoint written by practitioners in organization are based just in the lead of individual understanding and imperfect examination. The main beliefs have not positioned the remaining of thorough experiential study by means of technical means. In addition, it is not understandable that if the values are for action commendation, or characterization. Seeing that from exacting standpoint it turns out to be essential to classify a number of self-sufficient stipulations of what in real fact an association is, therefore that the values do not turn out to be on the whole a part of the explanation of an association. In view of the fact that, it was not done with any constancy, these main beliefs turn out to be empirically empty-headed. Possibly, the mainly vital malfunction of organizational administration hypothesis is that it does not match with observance. The hypothesis is apt to disband when go through a test structure. As a result not even a single attitude is appropriate to each and every managerial circumstance as well as every now and then one contradicts each other. (Taylor, F.W (2007) Traditional theorists, above all managerial theorists, have recommended that an assortment of main beliefs of organization have widespread submission. This suggests that the similar ideology can be practical within for example diverse association, organization intensity of the matching organization, and/or purpose of that particular organization. Pragmatic study, nevertheless, recommend that there is not even a distinct opinion which is appropriate in all these state of affairs. Additionally a lot of the ideologies are within paradoxical point. For example, standard of specialization is often in clash amid the principle of unity of control. Accordingly, subsequent to the basic standard main beliefs the most important support of traditional conjecture have been inquired or they are not appropriate or related lacking a lot of remuneration: Hierarchical construction is the fundamental basis of power associations within any organizations, where it signified the conformity of people individuals relationships in an organization. However a big concern stuck between the organization chain of command is based upon the arrangement within the association and the mounting significance of technical development. (Taylor, F.W (2007) The traditional approach to the extent of organization deals with oversimplification exemplifying comprehensive of the junior staff member for a valuable period. The hypothesis suggests a slender span of group as well as stipulates a detailed number of subordinates under the direct supervision of one manger. On the other hand, the operational loom put forward that this is not so and a wider span of management is far superior for decision-making implementation. (Woodward, J (2007) The principle of scalar-functional put forward that the control liken the ability of people in point of fact performing managerial roles. This supposition of traditional hypothesis does not hold superiority for the reason that in actual practice capability may exceed power. As a result these situation need adjustment flanked by work and persons. Neo-classists are familiar with two deficit of this set, where initially it is not probable to increase a genuine feel of person aptitude subsequently that an ample contest can be made flanked by persons ability and lines of managerial career prospect. Secondly harmonizing of the capability and influence is additionally customized by the untailored relations. Consequently what is prearranged as a balance within the logic of bureaucrat organization might not be factual. (Woodward, J (2007)

The Psychology of Pedophiles Essay -- Child Molesters, Sex Offenders

In the news today we frequently hear about pedophiles and child molesters. We have heard the horror stories of priest and bishops molesting boys, public school teachers having sex with students, and family members molesting children. While it is still taboo, the public view of a child molester has changed in the past years. It used to be that when we thought of a pedophile, we thought of a scary man lurking behind the bushes. This is not the case today, most of the cases of child molestation are by a person known to the child, whether it be a family member or a family friend.(Herkov, 2012) A pedophile is a person who is significantly older and has conscious sexual interests in prepubescent children. There are two kinds of pedophiles, the violent offenders and the non-violent offenders. The violent offenders are the minority of offenders. These are the one that pose the greatest risk to the victim and the public. Violent offenders are also known as child rapists. They use threat, intimidation, and physical force to overpower their victims. In most cases the child relinquishes sex for survival.(Bridges, 2012) The non-violent offenders are the most prevalent of all molesters. These are the people who use deception and enticement to lure their victims into submission. In a way, these offenders are using a form of sexual extortion. Sex is often rewarded or exchanged for acceptance, recognition, attention, or material gain. Often times the victim will resist, and since these are non-violent predators, they will increase the efforts to get the victim to accept their advances . If the child is persistent, the offender will most likely move to a more vulnerable target. If the offender does start sexually abusing the victim, the sexual... ...July, 2004. Web. 5 Apr. 2015. http://www.transformationsjournal.org/journal/issue_08/article_01.shtml Bridges, Debbie. "Sexual Addiction Treatment, Signs,Causes, Symptoms." MedicineNet. MedicineNet, 28 July 2012. Web. 14 Apr. 2015. D’Amora, David and Burns-Smith, Gail. How Offender Treatment and Victim Advocacy can Work Together in Response to Sexual Violence," Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, The Official Journal of the Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abusers,11 (October 1999), 296-297. Deirmenjian, JM. â€Å"Pedophilia on the Internet.† Journal of Forensic Sciences, 47.5 (2002): 1090-1092. Herkov, Michael. "What Is Sexual Addiction?" Psych Central. Psych Central, July 2012. Web. 14 Apr. 2015. Lamberg, Lynne. â€Å"Researchers Seek Roots of Pedophilia.† JAMA, the Journal of the American Medical Association, 294.5 (2005): 546.

Database: Entity-relationship Model

Appendix A: A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling Il-Yeol Song and Kristin Froehlich College of Information Science and Technology Drexel University Philadelphia, PA 19104 Abstract The Entity-Relationship (ER) model and its accompanying ER diagrams are widely used for database design and Systems Analysis. Many books and articles just provide a definition of each modeling component and give examples of pre-built ER diagrams.Beginners in data modeling have a great deal of difficulty learning how to approach a given problem, what questions to ask in order to build a model, what rules to use while constructing an ER diagram, and why one diagram is better than another. In this paper, therefore, we present step-by-step guidelines, a set of decision rules proven to be useful in building ER diagrams, and a case study problem with a preferred answer as well as a set of incorrect diagrams for the problem.Database Management System a nd DataThe guidelines and decision rules have been successfully used in our beginning Database Management Systems course for the last eight years. The case study will provide readers with a detailed approach to the modeling process and a deeper understanding of data modeling. Introduction Entity relationship diagrams (ERD) are widely used in database design and systems analysis to represent systems or problem domains. The ERD was introduced by Chen (1976) in early 1976. Teorey, Yang, and Fry (1986) present an extended ER model for relational database design.The ERD models a given problem in terms of its essential elements and the interactions between those elements in a problem domain. The ERD can serve as the basis for databases, which store data about the problem domain, and which use, manipulate, and constrain that data. Experts in systems analysis and database design are adept at identifying user requirements and then translating them into corresponding components of the model. Many books and articles just provide a definition of each modeling component and give examples of pre-built ER diagrams. Beginners in data modeling have a great eal of difficulty learning how to approach a given problem, what questions to ask in order to build a model, what rules to use while constructing an ER diagram, and why one diagram is better than another. 213 Appendix A: A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling Ahrens and Song (1991) present a set of requirements elicitation template sentences, structured English template sentences, and some decision rules for database modeling. This paper presents a set of heuristic rules which improve upon those presented by Ahrens and Song (1991), together with a detailed case study analysis.We include step-by-step guidelines, a set of decision rules proven to be useful in building ER diagrams, and a case study problem with a preferred answer as well as a set of incorrect diagrams for the problem. These guidelines and decision ru les have been successfully used in our beginning Database Management Systems course for the last eight years. The case study will provide readers with a detailed approach to the modeling process and a deeper understanding of data modeling. The Entity-Relationship Diagram The entity relationship diagram is a graphical representation of a conceptual structure of a problem domain being modeled.The ERD assists the database designer in identifying the data and the rules that will be represented and used in a database. The ERD is an implementation-independent representation of a problem domain and it facilitates communication between the end-user and the analyst. ERDs can be easily converted into a logical database structure that can be readily implemented in a particular commercial database management system. The basic components of the ERD are entities, properties of entities called attributes, and relationships between entities. Entities Entities are PRIMARY THINGS of a problem domain about which users need to record data.Ross (1988) provides a list of candidate entity types which could be included in the model. (1) People: humans who carry out some function Employees, Students, Customers (2) Places: sites or locations Cities, Offices, Routes (3) Things: tangible physical objects Equipment, Products, Buildings (4) Organizations Teams, Suppliers, Departments (5) Events: things that happen to some other entity at a given date and time or as in an ordered sequence Employee promotions, Project phases, Account payments (6) Concepts: intangible ideas used to keep track of business or other activities Projects, Accounts, Complaints 214 stepsAppendix A: A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling These candidate entity types need to be evaluated against a particular domain being modeled. Some decision rules are discussed in a later section of this paper. Attributes Attributes are properties of entities or relationships. Entities have two types of properties: identi fying attributes and descriptive attributes. Identifying attributes uniquely determine each instance of an entity type. They are called entity identifiers or keys. For example, the attribute social security number would uniquely identify each member or instance of the entity type student.Descriptive attributes of student might include year, advisor, and grade point average. Each instance of an entity has a value for each attribute. Values for grade point average might include 2. 5, 3. 45, and 4. 0. Values for year might include 1991, 1992, 1993, and 1994. Only attributes that are meaningful in terms of modeling the problem under consideration are included in the ERD. For example, we would not include eye color in a student database. Relationships Relationships are another basic component of the ERD. A relationship is an association between or among things or entities.A relationship describes a meaningful interaction that needs to be remembered by the system. The degree of a relation ship indicates how many entities are participating in the relationship. A unary relationship describes an association of an entity with itself. A binary relationship, the most common instance, describes an association between two entities. A ternary (or n-ary ) relationship is an association between three or more entities. The ER methods that allow only unary and binary relationships are called binary models, while ER methods that allow any type of relationship are called n-ary models.For more thorough treatment of ternary relationships, see Jones and Song (1995, 1996) and Song and Jones (1995). Cardinality and Participation Constraints Cardinality is a constraint on the relationship between two entities. Specifically, the cardinality constraint expresses the maximum number of entities that can be associated with another entity via a relationship. For example, in a binary relationship (a relationship with two participating entities), we can have three possible cardinalities: oneto-o ne (1:1), one-to-many (1:N), or many-to-many (M:N).One-to-one cardinality says that, for entities customer and account, one customer can have at most one account and one account cannot be owned by more than one customer. One-to-many cardinality says that one customer can have many accounts, but one account cannot be owned by more than one customer. Many-to-many cardinality says that one customer can have many accounts and one account may be owned by many customers. 215 Appendix A: A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling Participation is also a relationship constraint.Participation expresses the minimum number of entities that can be associated with another entity via a relationship. There are two values for participation: total or mandatory participation and partial or optional participation. If every instance of an entity must participate in a given relationship then that entity has total participation in the relationship. But if every instance need not participate in a g iven relationship then the participation of that entity in the relationship is partial. Given the relationship employee works for epartment, an employee has partial participation in that relationship if he or she need not work for a department. An employee has total participation in the relationship if he or she must work for at least one department. Similarly, a department has partial participation in the relationship if it can exist without having any employees. A department has total participation in the relationship if it must have at least one employee. Cardinality and participation constraints are business rules in the problem domain being modeled. These constraints represent the way one entity type is associated with another entity type.These constraints are also integrity constraints because they help to ensure the accuracy of the database. These constraints limit the ways in which data from different parts of the database can be associated. For example, let's say the cardin ality of the relationship between Customer and Account is one-to-one, as in Figure 1(a) below. If customer C1 is associated with account A3, then C1 cannot be associated with any other accounts and A3 cannot be associated with any other customers. 216 Appendix A: A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling (a) One – to – One (1:1):One customer can have at most one account. One account cannot be owned by more than one customer. Customer 1 CA 1 Account ER Diagram C1 C2 C3 A1 A2 A3 Occurrence Diagram (b) One – to – Many (1:n): One customer can have many accounts. One account cannot be owned by more than one customer. Customer 1 C1 C2 C3 CA n A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 Account ER Diagram Occurrence Diagram (c) Many – to – Many (n:m): One customer can have many accounts. One account may be owned by many customers. Customer n C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 CA m A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 Account ER Diagram Occurrence Diagram Figure 1.CARDINALITY: The expression of the maximum numb er of entities that can be associated to another entity via a relationship. Occurrence Diagrams show the relationships between occurrences or instances of each entity. 217 Appendix A: A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling Taxonomy in ER Modeling In an ER model, an entity is represented as a rectangle containing the name of the entity. The names of attributes are enclosed in an oval connected to the rectangle of the entity they describe. Attributes may be omitted from the diagram to avoid cluttering it and also in the early stages of development.Relationships are represented by diamonds between entities. The notation of the ERD, however, varies according to the modeling approach used. Binary models do not use the diamond to indicate a relationship, do not represent attributes of relationships, and do not allow ternary relationships, that is, relationships between three or more entities. Martin (1989), Bachman (1992), ERWin and IDEF1X (Bruce, 1992) use the binary modeling approach. Most text books use n-ary modeling, including Elmasri and Navathe (1994), Hawryszkiewycz (1991), Teorey (1994), Batini, Ceri and Navathe (1992), and McFadden and Hoffa (1994).A few notations are illustrated below. n Employee 1 Department a) Chen Employee Department b) Teorey n Employee 1 Department c) Elmasri ; Navathe Employee (0,1) works_for is_worked_for Employee works_for Employee p ——————–works_for Employee c has (1,n) Department d) MERISE Employee Department e) IE Department f) Bachman Department g) IDEF1X Department h) Shlaer & Mellor Figure 2. Various notations for ER Diagram representing â€Å"one employee works for zero or one department and one department has one or more employees†. 218 Appendix A: A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship ModelingEach diagram in Figure 2 contains two entities: employee and department. In diagrams a, b, c, and d, the diamond indicates the relationship between the entities. T hese diagrams use n-ary modeling. Diagrams e through h are examples of binary modeling. They do not represent the relationship with the diamond shape. Instead, diagrams e, f, and h label the line between the entities with the relationship name. Attributes were not represented in the diagrams for simplicity. The various circles, lines, arrows, and letters on the diagram indicate cardinality and participation constraints.For a more complete treatment of various ER modeling methods, see Song, Evans, and Park (1995). ER Modeling How does one begin creating an entity relationship diagram? In this paper, we present step-by-step guidelines to build an ERD using n-ary modeling using Elmasri and Navathe's notation (see 2. c). In Table 1, we summarize a sequence of steps of database design using an ER model. Note that these steps are iterative. 1. Understand the problem domain. Analyze database requirements. †¢Write a summary specification in English, if not created yet. †¢What do w e need to store into the database? What queries and reports do we need to generate? †¢ What are important people, places, physical things, organizations, events and abstract concepts in the organization? 2. Design a conceptual schema by creating an ER diagram. (a) Identify entity types. Assign a singular noun to each entity type. (b) Identify relationships between (among) entities. Use a meaningful verb for a relationship name. (c) Draw an ERD without attributes. (d) Identify relationship cardinalities. †¢Mapping constraint (1:1, 1:N, N:M) †¢Participation constraint (Total, Partial) (e) Assign attributes to entity types and relationship types.Usually attributes come from nouns, adjectives or adverbs. (f) Select identifiers (primary keys) for entity types. †¢Weak entity: composite primary key. †¢Regular entity: choose/create a single attribute primary key. (g) Select the PKs of relationships. †¢If 1:1, then the PK of either side entity type may be select ed. †¢If 1:N, then the PK of N-side entity type must be selected. †¢ If M:N, then a composite PK consisting of PKs of two entity types must be used. †¢ If ternary, then a composite PK consisting of the PKs of at least two entity types.The actual PKs selected will vary depending on the cardinality. 3. Design a logical schema. (a) Translate the ERD into a relational schema 219 Appendix A: A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling †¢If a relationship cardinality is likely to be changed; use stable method. †¢If a relationship cardinality is not likely to be changed; use mapped method. †¢ If a relationship cardinality is not likely to be changed and null values of foreign keys are significant; use mapped with total/partial method. (b) Check normalization (at least 3NF). (c) Create data dictionaries. A schema table †¢One table for each relation created in step (a) – Assign a domain type for each attribute. – Explain the meaning of a ttributes, if not intuitive. – Note other values such as range, null, PK, FK, indexed, source, owner (d) Do database prototyping & modify the design if necessary. (e) Summarize the design assertion (integrity, security). 4. Verify the design with users. Iterate the steps, if necessary. Table 1. Steps to DB Design Using ER Modeling First, it is important to study the problem domain at hand. Analyze database requirements.Write a summary paragraph for the problem domain, considering what data need to be stored and what queries and reports need to be processed. All the information necessary for the identified queries and reports must be included in the summary paragraph. Revise the summary paragraph considering database requirements. Second, from the summary paragraph, find nouns. They are candidates for entity types. To determine whether a noun should be designated as an entity, the following decision rules may be applied. Rule 1 Every entity type should be important in its own right within the problem domain.Rule 2 IF an object type (noun) has only one property to store THEN it is an attribute of another entity type ELSE it is an entity type. Rule 3 IF an object type has only one data instance THEN do not model as an entity type. Rule 4 IF a relationship needs to have a unique identifier 220 Appendix A: A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling THEN model it as an entity type. The first three rules are used to evaluate object types or nouns, and the fourth rule is used to evaluate relationships or verbs. Example 1 Address is usually a property of another object type, like customer, vendor, or company.Its existence is less important and not meaningful in its own right within the problem domain. Address should be modeled as an attribute. Example 2 Suppose we are modeling the customers of a company and we want to include the city where each customer resides. If the name of the city is its only attribute, then, following Rule 2, model city as an attri bute not an entity. Similarly, consider the case of modeling employees and their departments. If the only important property of the department is its name, then Rule 2 tells us to model it as an attribute.However, if we need to store additional properties of each department such as projects or total sales, then we should consider modeling it as an entity. Example 3 Consider modeling the activities of a trucking company. Since there is only one instance of the trucking company, then, according to Rule 3, it is not necessary to represent it in our model as an entity. We note that it is not wrong to model this single instance noun as an entity type. We simply do not model it as an entity type at the conceptual level because it does not add any modeling power.We need the fourth rule because one fact can be stated in many different ways in English. In the fourth rule, distinguishing between entities and relationships depends on the function the component plays in the problem domain and h ow data will be stored about it. Example 4 Consider the three statements customer orders products, customer pays bills, and reviewer reviews papers. Even though orders and pays appear to represent relationships, we model them as entities since each instance would need a unique number for identification in real-world situations.Information would be stored in the database for each order and payment. Each review is not likely to need a unique identification number. Instead, we identify each review activity by a combination of Paper# and Reviewer#. Thus, by Rule 4, we model reviews as a relationship type. Once entities have been assigned, we proceed to identify relationship types between those entities. Verbs are useful candidates for relationships. The following question is useful for identifying relationships: â€Å"What sentences can be constructed of the form Entity Verb Entity? † For example, 221Appendix A: A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling †¢Employee ha s children (Existence relationship) †¢Professor teaches students (Functional relationship) †¢Customer places order (Event relationship) Note that a relationship is not an action of a flow of data as in data flow diagrams. They are important interactions, between two or more entities, that need to be remembered by the system. In the above examples, we want to remember the facts that who is a child of which employee, which professor teaches which students, and which customer places which order. Also keep in mind that all relationships are bi-directional.We should be able to state the relationship in both directions. Expressing the relationships above in the opposite direction yields the following statements: †¢ Children belong to employee †¢ Students are taught by professor †¢ Order is placed by customer After an ERD has been built, the following rule can aid in validating the diagram. Rule 5 IF any verb refers to nouns which are not selected as entity types T HEN do not model it as a relationship type. If any verb in the ERD fails to follow Rule 5, then consider it again carefully before including it in the diagram.When entities and relationships have been identified, then the cardinality and participation constraints of the relationships can be analyzed. The following rules can help determine the cardinality and participation constraints for a given binary relationship. A B Rule 6 For each A, what is the maximum number of Bs that may be related to it? Rule 7 IF A can exist without being associated with a B THEN A has partial (optional) participation ELSE A has total (mandatory) participation. 222 Appendix A: A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling Example 5 Consider the relationship Supplier Supplies Account.For each Supplier, what is the maximum number of Accounts that may be related to it? Let's say that in our problem domain, each Supplier may have many Accounts but each Account may have only one Supplier. By Rule 6, the ca rdinality constraint for Supplier:Account is 1:N or one to many. Figure 1 illustrates the cardinality constraints. Example 6 In determining the participation constraint of Supplier Supplies Account, we follow Rule 7: If Supplier can exist without being associated with Account, THEN Supplier has partial participation, ELSE Supplier has total participation.In our problem domain, Supplier may exist without being associated with Account. Therefore, Supplier has partial participation in the Supply relationship. However, since Account cannot exist without a Supplier; Account has total participation in the Supply relationship. Some basic naming conventions have been established to maintain accuracy and consistency in the database and to avoid redundancy. All entity names should be unique. Use singular nouns in the diagram for both entity and attribute names. Use verbs in the present tense for relationship names. Verbs should be meaningful.For example, avoid verbs like is, has, and do whene ver possible. Additionally, well-defined ERDs should satisfy the following basic rules: †¢ All entities and relationships should be connected. †¢ All entity names should be unique. †¢ Each entity must have at least one relationship. †¢ A relationship cannot be directly connected to another relationship. †¢ Every entity must have at least one unique attribute, which serves to identify each instance of that entity. Case Study The following example will illustrate our guidelines for modeling requirements of the problem domain with entity-relationship diagrams.Using the summary paragraph of the problem description below, we will progress through the steps described above. The nouns in the problem description appear in boldface and the verbs are italicized to aid in the following analysis. Summary Paragraph of Problem Description A database specialist wants to design a part of the database for a small drug store owner as follows: The owner wants to keep track of all the suppliers who supply anything to the store. For each supplier, the owner assigns a unique supplier number, and wants to keep the 223Appendix A: A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling company name, address (number, street, city, state, zip), contact person's name, phone number, fax number, and a comment for each supplier. For each supply activity, an account is established to keep track of the date incurred, the total cost of the activity, due date for payment, outstanding balance after some payments, and any special comments related to the account. For each account, the owner may pay at several different times and in different ways (e. g. , cash, check, credit card).For each payment activity, the owner wants to keep the date of payment, amount of payment, method of payment (check: check number; credit card: credit card name, type, and number). Note that one supplier can supply many times and one payment can pay for several accounts of the same supplier. Entity Ana lysis After reading and understanding the problem statement, our first step is to identify entities for the ERD. To do that we examine the nouns in the problem statement. Nouns appear in boldface. We test each noun against our four criteria to determine whether or not it should be included as an entity type.Our first noun is owner. Recall that an entity type has more than one instance and more than one property. Since there is only one instance of owner, we do not model it as an entity type. Similarly, there is only one store, so we need not represent store as an entity type. The next noun, supplier, can be classified as an entity type. Several properties of supplier are listed in the problem statement. The statement also refers to more than one supplier. Therefore, according to Rules 1, 2, and 3, we model supplier as an entity.For each supplier, the owner wants to store the following properties in the database: supplier number, company name, contact person, address, phone number, f ax number, and comment. Each of these attributes except address has only one property to store so we model them as attributes. Address has its component properties number, city, state, and zip so one might be tempted to model it as an entity type. However, the role of address as a property of supplier supersedes the fact that address has properties of its own. In other words, address itself without supplier is not important in its own right.Therefore, by Rule 1, we model address as an attribute. Account is the next noun. Account has several properties to be stored in the database: date incurred, total cost, due date, account balance, and comments; and we will store information about numerous accounts. Therefore, we designate account as an entity. Its properties are modeled as attributes of account. Payment is clearly an entity, with multiple instances and various properties. The properties of payment: date of payment, amount of payment, and method of payment, are modeled as its attr ibutes.Cash, check, and credit card appear to be attributes of payment, but actually, they are not attributes themselves, but simply different values for the attribute method of payment. This distinction becomes clearer if we think about 224 Appendix A: A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling storing data in the database. For each payment, one of the values cash, check, or credit card will be stored in the location containing data about the method of payment. Check number and credit card name, type and number may be modeled as attributes of Payment. Supplier Account Payment Figure 3. Entities to be included in the ERD.Relationship Analysis Our analysis of nouns in the problem statement has produced three entities: Supplier, Account, and Payment (Figure 3). Keep these entities in mind as we identify relationships between them. Let's examine the verbs in the problem statement as candidates for relationships in the diagram. Verbs appear in italics. Of the verbs in the problem statement: keep track, assigns, supply, established, and pay, only supply and pay are possible candidates for relationships between the entities account, supplier, and payment. Keep track and keep appear several times in the problem statement.These terms refer, not to a relationship between entities, but generally to storing data in the database. In other words, they are used to describe the problem domain, not an interaction that needs to be remembered by the system. Therefore, we do not model them as relationships. Established, in the statement an account is established, is an activity performed by the owner or the system itself. Similarly, owner assigns a unique supplier number reflects an activity by the owner. These two verbs do not represent relationships between any of our three entities. Thus, we are left with the verbs supply and pay.A supplier performs a supply activity. The result of a supply activity is an account. Therefore, a good candidate for the relationship betwee n supplier and account is supply. Stated in both directions, the relationship is Supplier supplies account and account is supplied by supplier. Rule 4 states that if a relationship needs to have a unique identifier, then model it as an entity. Each supply activity is unique, so we may be tempted to model supply as an entity. However, the data for each activity is stored using the entity account, so it is not necessary to create another entity which stores the same information.Each payment credits an account so pay is the relationship between payment and account. Expressing the relationship pay in both directions, we can say account is paid by payment and payment pays account. 225 Appendix A: A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling Now we can draw the basic ERD (Figure 4). We include the entities Supplier, Account, and Payment, and the relationships Supply and Pay. Attributes may be added to the diagram at this point or omitted to avoid clutter. Supplier Supply Account Pay Payment Figure 4. ERD without attributes and constraintsAnalysis of Cardinality and Participation Constraints In order to identify the cardinality and participation constraints of each relationship in the ERD, we follow Rules 6 and 7 looking at the relationship first from the point of view of one entity and then from the other entity. In our ERD above, to determine the cardinality constraint of the relationship Supply, we begin by asking, â€Å"For each Supplier, what is the maximum number of Accounts that may be created? † From the problem statement, we know that one supplier can supply many times and an account is established for each supply activity.Viewing the relationship in the other direction, we ask, â€Å"What is the maximum number of Suppliers for which each Account may contain information? † From the problem statement we can assume that each account carries information for a single supplier, since accounts are established for individual supply activities. Th us, for each supplier, there may be many accounts and each account may have only one supplier. The relationship Supplier Supplies Account is a one-to-many relationship. The diagram is marked with a 1 on the side of the relationship Supply nearer to Supplier, and an N (for many) on the side nearer to Account (see Figure 5).To identify the cardinality of the relationship Payment Pays Account, we look at the relationship from both directions. We ask, â€Å"What is the maximum number of Payments we can accept for each Account? † The answer is clearly stated in the problem statement: For each account, the owner may pay at several different times and in different ways. From the opposite direction, â€Å"For each Payment, what is the maximum number of Accounts for which it may pay? † Again, we find the answer in the problem statement: One payment can pay for several accounts of the same supplier. In sum, each account 226Appendix A: A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Mod eling may receive many payments and each payment may pay for many accounts. Therefore, the relationship Payment Pays Account is many-to-many. This time, we mark our diagram with an M on one side of the relationship Pay and an N on the other side. (Note that the use of M or N is completely arbitrary. ) We go through a similar process to determine the participation constraint of each relationship, looking at the relationship from each direction. For the Supply relationship we ask, â€Å"Can a Supplier exist without generating Accounts? In the other direction, â€Å"Can an Account exist without having Suppliers supply merchandise? † The answers to these questions are not explicit in the problem statement. In a real world situation, the database designers would clarify questions like these with the owner. In this case, we will make assumptions from what we understand about the problem domain. Suppliers are generally fairly stable entities. A company maintains relationships with several regular suppliers regardless of whether they have outstanding accounts. On the other hand, an account is only created when a supplier supplies merchandise.Since suppliers can exist without having current accounts, Supplier has partial participation in the Supply relationship. Accounts, however, depend on suppliers for their existence. Thus, Account has total participation in the Supply relationship. To determine the participation of the entities Payment and Account in the Pay relationship, we ask, â€Å"Can a Payment exist without paying for an Account ? † and â€Å"Can an Account exist without receiving Payments against it? † A payment which pays for nothing is absurd. It cannot exist without an account. An account, however, may exist without receiving payments against it.Therefore, Payment has total participation and Account has partial participation in the relationship Pay. In representing the cardinality and participation constraints described above in our ERD, we will employ Elmasri and Navathe's (1994) notation. If an entity has partial participation in the relationship, then a single line is drawn on the line between that entity and the relationship. A double line indicates total participation. The cardinality constraint is represented by Look Across convention, while participation constraint is represented by Look Here convention.Figure 5 illustrates the final ERD with cardinality and participation constraints. 227 Appendix A: A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling 1 Supplier Supply N Account M Pay N Payment Figure 5. ERD with cardinality and participation constraints. Errors in Modeling A common error that novice designers make is failing to recognize the boundaries of a problem domain. They fail to make a distinction between elements that comprise the content of the database and elements that are outside the scope of the database. For example, in the problem statement bove, a novice might want to model the verbs keep track or assigns or established as relationships (see Figure 6(a)). These verbs refer to implementing the database and not to its content. Keep track refers to storing data in the database, established refers to adding an instance of an entity to the database, and assigns refers to giving a value to an attribute of an entity. In deciding which elements to model, it is valuable to keep in mind the real world situation. Novice designers also frequently confuse entities with their attributes or properties, as in Figure 6(b).Occasionally, if properties are complex and play a significant role in the problem domain, then they may be modeled as entities. More often, however, properties of an entity should be modeled as attributes. In our problem statement, a novice user may decide to model address, a property of the entity supplier, as an entity. Modeling Address follows Rules 2 and 3 about identifying entities: it has more than one property and it has more than one occurrence. However, ad dress does not follow Rule1 in that it is not important in its own right.The role of address in the database is more accurate as an attribute of supplier, than as an entity with its own relationships. Other errors are modeling indirect or redundant relationships and inappropriately modeling object types as relationships rather than as entities. Given our problem statement, one may be tempted to model the relationship Payment Pays Supplier as in Figure 6(c) or Supplier Pays Account as in Figure 6(d) rather than Payment Pays Account. Figure 6(c) represents the association between payment and account indirectly. This indirect relationship can only exist after we have all the direct 228Appendix A: A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling relationships as in Figure 5. In this case, the indirect relationship simply becomes redundant. Without the direct relationships, the indirect relationship cannot be added, because it cannot explain how a particular payment is distributed to mu ltiple accounts. Figure 6(d) represents the relationship Pay rather than the entity Payment. In either of these two cases, it is difficult to explicitly represent the fact that one payment can pay for several accounts of the same supplier. We can only tell implicitly by reading the check number for the various payments.If the payment is made in cash, there is no way to identify that it paid for more than one account. If the representation used in Figure 6(d) is used, then the attributes related to payments: date of payment, amount of payment, and method of payment, are now attributes of the relationship Pay. This representation can add unnecessary complexity to the model. Ordinarily, a relationship is uniquely represented by the identifiers of one or more of the entities which participate in it. If the relationship includes a time-dependent attribute like date of payment, then that attribute must also be included in the primary key for that relationship.Additionally, instances of da te of payment and amount of payment will require redundant representation because they will have to be included for each account covered by a payment. Finally, in business practice, each payment activity usually requires a unique identifier. Therefore, following Rule 4, it is more appropriate to model payment as an entity than as a relationship. As an entity, the representation is more straightforward and less likely to include redundant or inaccurate information. 229 Appendix A: A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling a) Selection of wrong verb as relationship Owner (b) Attribute as entity Supplier Located_at Address Keeps_track Payment (c) Indirect relationship Payment Pays Supplier Establishes Account (d) Payment as relationship instead of entity Establishes Supplier Pays Account Figure 6. Errors in ERD Modeling. Limitations of Guidelines and Rules Two limitations of our guidelines are that they don't account for incomplete requirements analysis or for ambiguity in the problem description. If the problem description is incomplete, then the resulting analysis based on this approach will also be incomplete.We assume that the analysis is complete. If the problem specification is modified, the analysis and resulting ERD should be modified as well. In English, one concept can be represented in many different ways. For example, we can say that customer orders products or customer places an order to buy products. Order is used 230 Appendix A: A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling as a verb in the first sentence and as a noun in the second. We minimize this problem by adopting Rule 4, which states that if a verb needs to have a unique identifier, we model it as an entity type rather than a relationship type.Conclusion We have discussed a set of decision rules which are useful in building ERDs and have illustrated the application of these rules using a single example. ERD constructs discussed here include Entities, Relationships, Attributes, Ca rdinality constraints and Participation constraints. To simplify our discussion, we didn't include other constructs such as Weak Entity, Ternary Relationship, and Generalization/ Specialization. Our rules are heuristics which we have found useful for most cases to build ERDs in the early stages of analysis.However, these rules may need some refinement in some problem domains and the rules should be adapted to the problem domain under consideration. References Ahrens, J. and Song, I. Y. (1991). â€Å"EER Data Modeling Aids for Novice Database Designers†. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conferences of the Information Resources Management, Memphis, TN, May 19-22, 1991, pp. 99-114. Bachman (1992). Bachman Analyst, Bachman Information Systems Incorporated. Batini, C. , Ceri, S. , and Navathe, S. (1992). Conceptual Database Design: An EntityRelationship Approach, Redwood City, CA: Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, Inc.Bruce, T. (1992). Designing Quality Databases with IDEF 1X Information Models. New York, New York: Dorset House Publishing. Chen, P. P. (1976). â€Å"The Entity Relationship Model – Toward a Unified View of Data†. ACM Transactions on Database Systems, 1 :1, pp. 9-36. Elmasri, R. and Navathe, S. (1994). Fundamentals of Database Systems, 2nd ed. , Redwood City, CA: Benjamin/ Cummings Publishing Company, Inc. Hawryszkiewycz, I. T. (1991). Database Analysis and Design, 2nd ed. , MacMillan Publishing Company. Jones, T. H. and Song, I. -Y. , (1995). Binary Representation of Ternary Relationships in ER Conceptual Modeling,† in 14th Int'l Conf. on Object-Oriented and EntityRelationship Approach, December 12-15, 1995, Australia, pp. 216-225. (Object- 231 Appendix A: A Practical Guide to Entity-Relationship Modeling Oriented and Entity-Relationship Approach, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Springer-Verlag, Vol. 1021). Jones, T. H. and Song, I. -Y. , (1996). â€Å"Analysis of Binary/ternary Cardinality Combinations in Entity -Relationship Modeling,† Data & Knowledge Engineering Vol 19, No. 1, pp. 39-64. Martin, J. (1989).Information Engineering: Book II: Planning and Analysis, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. McFadden, F. , and Hoffa, J. (1994). Modern Database Management, 4th Ed. , Redwood City, CA: Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, Inc. Ross, R. G. (1988). Entity Modeling: Techniques and Application, Database Research Group, Inc. Shaler, S. and Mellor, S. J. (1988). Object-Oriented Systems Analysis: Modeling the World in Data, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Yourdon Press. Song, I-Y. , Evans, M. , and Park, E. K. (1995). â€Å"A Comparative Analysis of EntityRelationship Diagrams,† Journal of Computer and Software Engineering, Vol. , No. 4 (1995), pp. 427-459. Song, I. Y. and Jones, T. H. (1995). â€Å"Ternary Relationship Decomposition Strategies Based on Binary Imposition Rules,† in 11th Int'l Conf. on Data Engineering, March 610, 1995, Taipei, Taiwan, pp. 485-492. Teorey, T. J. (1 994). Database Modeling ; Design: The Fundamental Principles, 2nd. ed. , Morgan Kauffman Publishers, Inc. Teorey, T. J. , Yang, D. , and Fry, J. P. , (1986). â€Å"A Logical Design Methodology for Relational Databases Using the Extended Entity-Relationship Model†. Computing Surveys, 18:12, June, pp. 197-222. 232

Hrm Practices in South Asia Essays

Hrm Practices in South Asia Essays Hrm Practices in South Asia Essay Hrm Practices in South Asia Essay South Asia, also known as Southern Asia, is the southern region of the Asian continent, which comprises the sub-Himalayan countries and, for some authorities (see below), also includes the adjoining countries to the west and the east. Topographically, it is dominated by the Indian Plate, which rises above sea level as the Indian subcontinent south of the Himalayas and the Hindu Kush. South Asia is surrounded (clockwise, from west) by Western Asia, Central Asia, Eastern Asia, Southeastern Asia and the Indian Ocean. According to the United Nations geographical region classification, Southern Asia comprises the countries of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, Maldives, Afghanistan, Iran and Sri Lanka. By other definitions and interpretations (see below), Myanmar and Tibet are also sometimes included in the region of South Asia. South Asia is home to well over one fifth of the worlds population, making it both the most populous and most densely populated geographical region in the world. The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation is an economic cooperation organization in the region. South America Backgorund Using survey data from the Americas Barometer by the Latin American Public Opinion Project at Vanderbilt, Corral concluded that â€Å"happiness in Latin America and the Caribbean is related to economic factors as well as social, political and demographic factors. At least within this region, economic development at the national levels explains different levels of life satisfaction among citizens in the region. † Corral found that economic factors- income and perceptions of the individual and national situations- bear a positive correlation with levels of life satisfaction. It is no surprise, then, that survey respondents in earthquake-ravaged Haiti, the poorest country in the region, ranked the lowest on the life satisfaction index at 35. 4 percent. But, most people in the rest of Latin America see themselves as happy. Brazil led the pack at 71. 6 percent, followed by Costa Rica (67. 7 percent), Venezuela (65. 6 percent) and Panama (65. 1 percent), with Trinidad Tobago and Honduras tied at 63. 3 percent. Jamaica, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Belize and Peru are all above 50 percent. For the region as a whole, perception of individual economic conditions is by far the strongest predictor of individual happiness, Corral found. Those with better economic profiles are happier. A person’s subjective view of his wealth was more influential on his satisfaction level than an objective measure of wealth. â€Å"It is possible that this relationship is driven by dual causality,† Corral wrote. â€Å"A perceived positive economic situation increases happiness, and as well, happy people tend to perceive better economic situations. Marriage has a positive but not significant effect on life satisfaction among the region’s citizens, Corral found. Churchgoers and those who are surrounded by people they trust register high levels of satisfaction. Women, the elderly, young adults, the better educated and those who live in large cities likewise express high levels of happiness. Having children and being unemployed weigh negatively on individual satisfaction. Co untry People values, Business Tradition, Etiquette Business Culture of South Asia Historically, South Asia is an agricultural country with a very small industrial sector employing about 40 percent of the active labor force. Smallness of industrial sector may seem to be congenial to the development of a healthy industrial relationship but this could not be realized even within a period of fifty-eight years of the country’s independence. While some of the reasons of this failure are historical and traditional cultural background, many are in fact attributable to the poor management system and legal system concerning industrial relations in the country. Usually trade unions are organized mostly on the basis of political, regional and even personal loyalties which was encouraged by the capitalists who often had restored to the policy of buying a fraction of the union or putting up one of their own to divide the union movement by extending some â€Å"under the table favors† to a group of union leaders. In addition, the system of HRM in South Asia is largely due to its own business heritage and traditional historical realities. In fact, historic forces shape HRM practices in that society, and largely influence the efficient HRM system of a society along with other things. Thus to make a correct assessment about human resource management system and practices in South Asia, it is necessary to make a through investigation into the development of Muslim and Hindu employer and employees and entrepreneurship in various phases of history and culture. The above situation as it stands suggests that, as a class of each group does not belong to a highly motivated and committed entrepreneurial class. The easiest explanation rationalizing this situation is, as often quoted, British colonial rule of two centuries in the past are responsible for this. Apparently, the explanation seems to be sensible and logical. However, this needs further explanation and demands clarification and comprehension. It is understandable that the colonial powers ( British rule) did not in their own interest encourage the growth of a significant industrial and efficient HRM practices base in this part of the subcontinent ( India, Pakistan and Bangladesh) and the deadlocks were created by them towards the development of effective HRM system in the area. The overall supply of competent management personnel, their profiles, and culture to which they belong and under which they work, also has significant impacts on the features and practices of HRM system in South Asia national culture. In general, to learn the expertise of building an effective HRM practices is very important for the attainment of an industrial efficiency, but most South Asian managers are traditionalistic. They tend to resist changes and develop participation within boss and subordinates. South Asia managers do not believe in the development of human resources, and they believe that machines are more important than humans. Several empirical studies (Read, 1962; Negahndi and Reiman, 1973) conclude that increased participation leads to improvement in several of organizational effectiveness. However, it should be noted that the closeness of relationship between participation and overall organizational effectives depends on the quality of its human resources. As suggested above, when a large complex organization is more participative minded and more decentralized most of the decisions are made at unit level. In this kind of organization, managerial employees need more technical management skill and knowledge. Top management in large organizations has neither the time nor expertise to make such decisions for unit level (Price, 1968). Properly trained managers and employees of participative organizations can overcome communication problems, make effective decisions at the point of action, and thus contribute to the achievement of more firm effectiveness. Business Culture of Latin America First, the high Power Distance (PD) that Hofstede noted in most Latin American countries has important ramifications. In practical terms, high PD means that social courtesies and formality are more important in Latin America than in the U. S. Latin American managers are expected to be more gracious and respectful than their U. S. counterparts, and the hierarchy is more noticeable For instance, while U. S. managers generally call employees by their first names, it is much more common in Latin America for managers to call employees senorita Martinez or senor Ramirez. Also, people in the Latin American workplace tend to use usted (Ud. , the formal â€Å"you,† rather than tu, the informal, â€Å"you,† when addressing others, and this applies to both supervisors and lower-level employees. When two members of the executive board converse privately, they may call each other â€Å"Jorge† and â€Å"Ana,† but in front of employees they are likely to switch to calling each other â€Å"senor Zapata† and â€Å"senora Gomez. † Finally, Latin American managers typically dress more formally than their U. S. counterparts, and are less likely to work beside their employees and â€Å"get their hands dirty. In addition to courtesy and formality, it is important to note how a high PD rating affects the way meetings are organized. One Mexican manager commented that meetings in Latin America are typically not thought of as a way for supervisors and employees to exchange ideas. Instead, information flows primarily from the top down in meetings. In other words, it would generally be considered inappropriate and disrespectful in Latin America for an employee to correct a supervisor or make a suggestion in front of other employees. At meetings, supervisors expect subordinates to listen attentively, more than offering input. Similarly, participatory management styles and employee empowerment are unfamiliar to most Latin Americans, and in many cases are perceived as neither helpful nor desirable. In some instances, global companies have successfully implemented these kinds of managerial techniques in Latin American subsidiaries, but in other cases attempts to solicit employee input and involve workers in decision-making have been met with hostility. One American manager of a factory in Guadalajara, Mexico was told point blank by the head of a local labor union to stop involving employees in decision-making and asking for their opinions. He told her pointedly, â€Å"You are in charge. You make the decisions! † The deference afforded to managers often has an impact on attitudes toward formal rules and regulations in Latin America. Persons in authority are more likely to be obeyed than a written policy, because of the respect they are given and the position they occupy. This attitude contrasts with the U. S. where most people tend to believe that rules should be applied impartially and without exception, in order to ensure fairness and justice. It is likely to observe all these results of high PD when you visit Latin America, but as one prepare to go to Nicaragua, keep in mind a principle presented earlier: variance within a culture. While Hofstede does not provide Cultural Dimension ratings for Nicaragua, the numbers for Ni caragua’s neighbors are fascinating: Panama and Guatemala both score 95 on PD, and are among the most hierarchical societies in the world, but Costa Rica scores only 35, which is a lower PD rating than even the U. S. earned. For that reason, it is important to be sensitive to how hierarchies play out in Nicaragua specifically. In addition to PD, it is important to mention the low Individuality (IND) rating that predominates in Latin America. In the workplace, low IND means employees tend to value harmony and good relationships more than personal advancement, and are expected to be loyal, hard-working, and willing to do whatever they are asked to do. In return for their hard work and loyalty, Latin American workers generally expect their employers to be loyal to them as well. Because of the group orientation, the employer-worker relationship tends to be more paternal in Latin America than in the U. S. Latin American firms typically treat employees as a sort of extended family, which often involves a wider range of benefits, such as subsidized or free lunches, more inclusive medical coverage, and holiday bonuses. It has already been pointed out that most Hispanic countries score very high on Uncertainty Avoidance (UA), which suggests that most Latin Americans prefer security and avoiding risk. This may help explain why technology is not as prevalent in Latin America as in the U. S. To be sure, poverty is part of the picture, but Latin Americans tend to be less enamored of technology for technology’s sake than many Americans. Due in part to the high UA rating, many Latin Americans perceive less of a need to upgrade, modernize, and replace old technology with cutting edge products. This may affect a given entrepreneur’s attitudes toward technological upgrades, adopting new computing systems, etc. One notable exception to this principle is the use of cell phones- due to infrastructure and bureaucratic issues associated with land lines, there are more cell phones in most Latin American countries than land lines. Lastly, the importance of family and personal relationships also impacts the workplace. For example, it is more common in Latin America to seek employment with family members, hire family members, and look to the family for help in times of need. In addition, many Latin Americans feel more comfortable doing business with people they know personally, and developing that relationship is often considered an essential first step. Americans who try to move things along more quickly and â€Å"get to the point† may become frustrated and/or offend Latin Americans. South Asian HRM Practices Recruitment and Selection